Simple: “government” Bureaucracy
The more a civilisation used bureaucracy to keep things in order, the more we know about them.
It could be a religious scholars writing down and recording major events in their area, to a local tax collector keeping notes on who owes the local ruler what and when it needs to be paid. (especially if they paid in crops/cattle rather than gold.)
in other cases it’s mainly deductive investigation, filling in the blanks between what we know of a culture by what they left behind (pottery, wall paintings, remains)
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