Much in the same way as the police can find out the murderer by looking at the crime scene. You look at whatever evidence is available to you and construct the best possible picture of what happened. Sometimes you have strong evidence, sometimes some pieces are missing but you can still get a rough idea of what happened. Sometimes you just don’t have enough to work with and the case will never be solved.
The best case scenario is that completely unrelated avenues of investigation converge on the same result. For example, we can say with confidence that Pompei was destroyed when Mount Vesuvius erupted, because there are mentions of this in historical records, and we can also see the traces of a volcano eruption in the little air bubbles that were trapped in the Arctic permafrost at a point in time which fits the timeline. That also then gives you a fixed point in history against which you can check and validate other events and place them in the timeline.
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