The most basic answer is math. The science of ballistics is all just math. The weight of the projectile, the angle it’s fired at, the charge of the propellant, the length of the barrel, gravity, wind resistance, temperature, the curvature of the earth, humidity, moon phase, (maybe not moon phase). All these things are factors that can be put in a calculation to accurately predict where that projectile will hit.
The oldest forms of artillery like trebuchets and stuff were just tested a lot and they worked out how far they fired with all the variables. Modern guns are treated the same way but modeling that is a lot easier with computers now.
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