How were stringed instruments and pianos tuned before electronic tuners?

Question

How were stringed instruments and pianos tuned before electronic tuners?

In: 1

Answer 1

It’s way more important that all instruments are tuned to each other, than to be tuned to the “correct” pitch. Any halfway decent musician can use their ear to make sure two instruments are tuned together.

In all likelihood, Beethoven’s symphonies in E minor were not perfectly tuned to E but they were close, and tuned to each other, which is fine for most purposes even in modern times.